The Covenants of Scripture: From Requirements to Relationship

It’s often said that in life, it’s not just about what you know, but who you know—and in my experience, this couldn’t be more accurate. If that holds true in our personal and professional lives, how much more important is it to invest in knowing God and understanding what it takes to build a meaningful relationship with Him?

As we journey through Genesis, the opening book of the Pentateuch and the foundation of the Old Testament, we are introduced to one of the most profound themes in Scripture: the concept of covenant. This ancient framework sheds light on God’s interactions with humanity, offering us insight into the depth and commitment of His promises and the relational bond He seeks to establish with us.

We often say we have a relationship with God, but what kind of relationship is it—and who defines it? Us, or God?

Treaties and Covenants of the Ancient World: Context for Scripture

In the ancient Near East during Moses’ time, covenants or treaties were common among nations and served as formal agreements between rulers, kings, and their subjects. Many of these covenants share structural and conceptual similarities with biblical covenants, reflecting the formal, binding nature of agreements that were understood in that cultural context. Here are some well-known types of covenants from that period:

1. The Hittite Suzerainty Treaties: These covenants, used by the Hittite Empire, established a relationship between a suzerain (a powerful king) and a vassal (a subordinate ruler). They included a historical prologue, stipulations, blessings, curses, and a call to witnesses—elements also present in the biblical covenant format. These treaties reinforced loyalty to the suzerain and set terms for the vassal’s duties and privileges.
2. The Code of Hammurabi: While more a law code than a covenant, this Babylonian legal document, dating to around 1754 BCE, includes a set of rules and obligations imposed by the Babylonian king Hammurabi on his subjects. It serves as a social contract outlining legal standards, justice, and moral behaviour, similar in nature to some aspects of the Mosaic Law. It provided the framework for the general social contract.
3. The Treaty of Kadesh: Signed between the Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses II and the Hittite King Hattusili III around 1258 BCE, this is one of the earliest known international peace treaties. It established a mutual defence agreement between the two kingdoms, pledging military assistance in case of foreign attack. This treaty demonstrates how covenants could involve promises of peace and protection.
4. The Vassal Treaties of Esarhaddon: These treaties, made by the Assyrian king Esarhaddon in the 7th century BCE, required vassals to swear loyalty to his successor and threatened severe curses upon those who violated the terms. They serve as examples of how covenants in the ancient Near East often included blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience, a feature mirrored in Deuteronomy.
5. The Amarna Letters: A collection of diplomatic correspondences between the Egyptian administration and Canaanite city-state rulers around the 14th century BCE, these letters detail alliances, loyalty, and covenants made for mutual benefit and protection. They provide insight into the political agreements and loyalties that shaped relationships in the region during Moses’ time.

These covenants reveal that formal, binding agreements were crucial in maintaining order and relationships among nations and rulers in the ancient Near East. They often incorporated rituals, witness testimonies, and blessings and curses—elements also found in the covenants of the Hebrew Bible.

Unpacking the Covenants: Keys to God’s Relationship with Humanity

In Scripture, we find a profound and ancient theme at the heart of God’s interactions with humanity: the concept of covenant. Covenant offers the framework for what it means to have a relationship with the King of kings, setting forth the principles for engaging with Him rightly. After all, if there’s one relationship we want to build wisely, it’s the one with God.

In a very real sense the biblical Covenants, or relationship agreements, regulate the terms and conditions between two “countries”: between heaven and earth.

Unlike a simple contract or agreement, a covenant in biblical terms is a sacred and binding relationship arbitrated by God Himself—a divine pledge or oath, that not only sets terms but also lays the foundation for intimacy, commitment, and purpose.

This cannot be repeated enough; one of the biggest misconceptions I observe among Christians is the tendency to see the Old Testament as obsolete, viewing it merely as a relic since we now have the New Testament. But this misses a crucial truth: the New Testament fulfils, not replaces, the Old. Together, they form a complete picture—without the Old Testament’s foundation, the New Testament’s promises lose their grounding and explains why so many Christians are struggling in their walk with God.

We claim to have a relationship with God, yet how often do we consider the nature of that relationship? Is it defined by our preferences, or by God Himself? Scripture reveals that our relationship with God is based on a profound and ancient framework: covenant. This covenant provides not only the guidelines for relating to God but also serves as the conduit for His blessings and promises to flow into our lives.

God’s promises are remarkable, referred to in 2 Peter 1:4 as

“Great and precious,” by which we may “partake in the divine nature.”

And as Paul reminds us in 2 Corinthians 1:20,

“All the promises of God are ‘Yes’ in Christ.”

Covenant is the very mechanism by which God intends to bring His heavenly blessings to earth, transferring His promises into our reality.

Yet, many believers feel frustrated when these promises seem absent from their lives. This often stems from misunderstanding that covenant is a reciprocal agreement.

God has established it and made His promises available, but we, too, have a role. Covenant requires action on our part to activate and realize the blessings intended for us. When we recognize and engage with God’s covenant fully, we unlock the true potential of His promises and begin to experience the benefits of this profound relationship He desires with us.

The Old Testament for a type of covenant that is often expressed in a form familiar to the ancient world: the suzerainty covenant. In the suzerainty structure, a greater king, the suzerain, extends protection, provision, and blessings to a lesser party, the vassal, who in turn pledges loyalty and obedience.

This ancient framework mirrors the relationship God establishes with humanity in the Old Testament, but specifically under the Old Testament. There were many covenants initiated, beginning with Adam and Eve, renewed with Noah, and expanded in God’s covenant with Abraham and later with the nation of Israel. Through these covenants, God reveals His character, showing Himself as a God of justice and mercy, authority and tenderness.

Genesis and the Pentateuch thus introduce us to God as the ultimate suzerain—a sovereign who creates, commands, and cares deeply for His people.

Through each covenant, we see His unwavering desire to protect, provide for, and ultimately redeem His creation from impending doom and encroaching chaos and darkness. This divine suzerainty not only reveals the foundation of God’s relationship with humanity but also foreshadows the ultimate covenant established through Christ, inviting us into a relationship that transcends time and draws us into the very heart of God’s redemptive plan.

This principle of bilateral agreement in relationships is not unique to Christianity. In ancient Egypt, covenants between pharaohs and other kingdoms required mutual loyalty and obligations. Similarly, Aristotle spoke of friendship as a bond based on virtue and reciprocity—without mutuality, there could be no true friendship.

Yet, unlike human covenants, God’s New Covenant is one where His grace fills our shortcomings precisely becasue we are unable to perform God’s perfect will:

“This is the covenant I will establish… I will put my laws in their minds and write them on their hearts. I will be their God, and they will be my people.” (Hebrews 8:10)

Ultimately, God offers the most important connection (friendship) we will ever need—the one that leads to true life. The question is, are we willing to meet Him on His terms?

The relationship between God and His people is often understood through the concept of covenant, which, in the Old Testament, was structured similarly to an ancient Suzerainty Covenant.

In these covenants, a suzerain (superior ruler from the Latin adverb sus “up, above”) establishes a binding agreement with a vassal (servant, subordinate or tenant from Latin servum, nom. servus meaning “slave”), where loyalty and obedience are exchanged for protection and provision.

The Old Covenant, as represented by the five books of Moses, follows this format with God as the suzerain and Israel as the vassal. However, with the introduction of the New Covenant in Christ, the relationship transitions from friendship based on servanthood to friendship based on equality, ultimately culminating in a marriage covenant (friendship).

“You have captivated my heart, my sister, my bride; you have captivated my heart with one glance of your eyes, with one link of your necklace.” (Song of Solomon 4:9)

This New Covenant is marked by an equality and a deeper intimacy between God and His people, characterized by reciprocity of kindness. In this verse He does not refer to her as “mother” thus superior or “daughter” as inferior. Instead He refers to her as “sister,” and thus equal.

This concept is also beautifully echoed in the mystical vision of the events in the Garden of Eden. There, Eve is drawn forth not from Adam’s head, as if to rule over him, nor from his feet, as if she were beneath him to be trodden upon. Instead, she is formed from his side, close to his heart, to walk with him as a companion and equal.

This profound detail suggests not only companionship but a sacred unity—a partnership woven from mutual respect and shared purpose. In this divine act, we glimpse God’s intent: that man and woman together reflect His image, standing side by side in harmony and strength.

In this way, Adam and Eve become the primal representation of Christ and His Church.

Their union foreshadows the sacred bond between Christ, the bridegroom, and His bride, the Church—a relationship built on love, sacrifice, and unity. Just as Eve was formed from Adam’s side to share in his life, so the Church was born from Christ’s side, through His sacrifice, to walk with Him in restored divine fellowship.

The story of Adam and Eve in Eden is not only the first love story but also a profound, prophetic symbol of the love and commitment Christ extends to His people, calling them to live in unity with Him.

The Five Books of Moses Emulates a Suzerainty Covenant Structure

The structure of a suzerainty covenant (treaty) can be linked to each of the five books of Moses (Greek Pentateuchos), reflecting the progression of God’s covenantal relationship with Israel and His right to demand their obedience:

• Preamble (Genesis): In a suzerainty covenant, the preamble introduces the suzerain and establishes their identity and authority. In Genesis, God establishes His identity as the Creator and sovereign ruler over the entire cosmos (order, good order, orderly arrangement of creation). Genesis lays the foundation for the covenant relationship by narrating the creation, the fall, and God’s call to Abraham (and thus his desendent). God demonstrates His authority by establishing covenants with Noah, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, ensuring His dominion over the earth through His chosen people.

  • Genesis sets up the framework (basis) for the entire covenant, identifying God as the rightful ruler, creator and owner of all.

  Historical Prologue (Exodus):The historical prologue of a suzerainty covenant recounts the history between the suzerain and the vassal, detailing the suzerain’s benevolent acts. In Exodus, God’s mighty acts of deliverance—especially the liberation of Israel from Egypt—are detailed. This narrative serves as the basis for why Israel owes allegiance and obedience to God, their liberator and protector.

  • Exodus recounts God’s saving work in the history of Israel, framing His authority and benevolence.

• Stipulations (Leviticus): The stipulations of a suzerainty covenant are the laws and commands the vassal must follow to remain in good standing. In Leviticus, God gives Israel detailed laws regarding sacrifices, moral conduct, cleanliness, and holiness. These stipulations were not just legal obligations but the proper way for Israel to maintain its relationship with God.

  It not only defines what God expected, but what Israel could expect in return.
  • Leviticus functions as the heart of the covenant’s stipulations, where obedience to God’s commands ensures blessings and the continuation of the covenant.

• Sanctions (Numbers): Suzerain treaties include blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience. Numbers reflects this aspect by narrating the blessings and curses that befell Israel as they wandered through the wilderness. The book highlights Israel’s disobedience, their punishment, and God’s continued patience. The constant tension between blessing and curse mirrors the suzerain covenant’s sanctions.

  • Numbers shows the practical outworking of the blessings and curses of the covenant based on Israel’s faithfulness or rebellion.

• Witnesses and Succession (Deuteronomy): The final part of the suzerainty covenant involves the naming of witnesses and provisions for the future continuity of the covenant. In Deuteronomy, Moses recites the covenant and calls heaven and earth to witness the renewal of the covenant between Israel and God (Deut. 30:19). He sets out blessings and curses again and provides instructions for future generations to carry on the covenant. Moses also prepares for his successor, Joshua (Yeshua→Jesus), to lead Israel into the promised land

  • Deuteronomy serves as a renewal and summary of the covenant, ensuring the continuation of the covenant relationship with future generations.

Throughout Scripture, the progression of God’s relationship with humanity is marked by covenants e.g. Adamic, Noahide, Abrahamic etc.

While the Old Covenant, given through Moses, established a formal, law-bound relationship between God and Israel, it is the Abrahamic Covenant that sets the foundation for the New Covenant—one based on faith, friendship, and the marriage covenant of equals between Christ and His Church. God became what we are so that we can become what He is. At the heart of this transition lies Abraham, who is uniquely called the friend of God (Isaiah 41:8, James 2:23).

Grace Revealed: Living in the Promises of the New Covenant

The Old and New Covenants represent two foundational stages in God’s relationship with humanity, each with unique characteristics and purposes. These covenants are not contradictory, but rather complementary, with the New Covenant fulfilling and expanding upon the Old. Exploring their distinctions helps illuminate the progression of God’s redemptive plan, offering insights into how we, as believers, are called to live in light of His promises.

The Nature of the Old Covenant: Law and Obedience

The Old Covenant, also known as the Mosaic Covenant, was given to the people of Israel at Mount Sinai after their liberation from Egypt. This covenant, encapsulated in the Ten Commandments and the laws given through Moses, emphasized obedience to God’s statutes as the basis for maintaining a relationship with Him. The purpose of the Old Covenant was to set Israel apart as a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exodus 19:6), distinct from other nations.

Biblical scholars emphasize that the Old Covenant was conditional, requiring adherence to specific laws for blessings to flow. As R.C. Sproul notes,

“The Old Covenant was inherently limited… It made clear the moral requirements of God, but it did not grant the power to fulfill them.”

The Old Covenant’s sacrifices and rituals provided a temporary covering for sin, but they pointed to a deeper need—a need for a lasting solution that could fully reconcile humanity to God.

Moses, the Medic: How the Old Covenant Stabilized, but Couldn’t Heal

In the 70’s, the TV series M*A*S*H followed the adventures of a reluctant doctors in the Korean War who worked tirelessly to save soldiers, some no more than teenagers, who had been injured in battle. The series originated as a social commentary on the obscenity of war.

The series often showed how patients caught in the atrocity of war were treated by medics in the field. Their immediate efforts—stopping the bleeding, applying pressure, bandaging wounds—were crucial to prevent death in the short term, but could ultimately not save the patient unless they received “deeper,” “internal” and more intensive care.

Despite their best efforts, these measures were only temporary. The soldiers, if left in that condition without proper surgery and long-term care, would not survive. The medics’ role was essential for initial survival, but true healing could only be found once the soldiers were brought to a fully equipped hospital where qualified doctors could perform the necessary “internal surgery” to dela with the affected area restore them completely.

This analogy reflects the nature of the Old Covenant in Scripture. The laws of the Old Covenant, are similar to putting a bandage on a wound that really needs surgery.

Moses, as God’s appointed servant, acted like a battlefield medic in the war of life. The Old Covenant, much like the bandages applied by the medics, was crucial for temporarily stabilizing the people of Israel. It established the law, outlined sacrifices, and provided a means for the people to seek forgiveness and restoration through ritual. Yet, while it was essential for maintaining their spiritual survival, it was never intended to be a permanent solution. It merely covered the “problem” temporarily. Left solely to the Old Covenant, the people would ultimately perish in their sin, as it could not fully transform the heart.

In the same way that the wounded soldiers needed to be brought to a fully qualified doctor for healing, humanity needed the ultimate physician—Jesus Christ. The Old Covenant pointed to this need by highlighting the flaws and limitations of the law. It showed the people that, despite their best efforts, they could not perfectly adhere to the law and be fully restored. This is reflected in passages such as Galatians 3:24, which says,

“So the law was our guardian [medic] until Christ came that we might be justified by faith.”

Moses, as a leader under the Old Covenant, was a type of spiritual paramedic, administering the necessary treatments to stabilize Israel. But his role was always to point forward, bring us to the true healer—the one who would bring complete and lasting restoration. Hebrews 10:1 explains,

“The law is only a shadow [temporary] of the good things that are coming—not the realities [permanent] themselves.”

It was never intended to be the final solution but rather a temporary fix for the problem of sinful nature, designed to prepare the people for the coming of Christ, the great physician who would heal the wounds of sin and restore humanity fully.

Just as a soldier’s life depended on being transported to a proper medical facility for full recovery, so too did humanity depend on the coming of Jesus Christ for the ultimate spiritual healing. Jesus, through His sacrifice, fulfilled what the Old Covenant could only point to, offering the perfect cure for sin, a cure that the law could never provide.

POINTING FORWARD

The prophet Jeremiah recognized the limitations of the Old Covenant, foreshadowing the New Covenant to come:

“I will make a new covenant with the people of Israel and with the people of Judah… I will put my law in their minds and write it on their hearts. I will be their God, and they will be my people” (Jeremiah 31:31-33).

This prophecy laid the groundwork for a covenant that would not be external, but rather internal, transforming the heart rather than merely regulating behavior.

The New Covenant: Fulfillment and Grace

The New Covenant, inaugurated by Jesus Christ, brought a transformative shift. Jesus declared at the Last Supper,

“This cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you” (Luke 22:20).

Through His sacrificial death and resurrection, Jesus fulfilled the requirements of the Old Covenant, establishing a new way of relating to God based not on law, but on grace.

In his letter to the Hebrews, the Apostle Paul elaborates on this radical shift:

“For if that first covenant had been perfect, there would have been no occasion sought for a second” (Hebrews 8:7).

The Old Covenant was “obsolete and growing old” (Hebrews 8:13) because it relied on human effort, while the New Covenant is empowered by God’s Spirit. John Calvin describes this shift, stating,

“The New Covenant gives what the Old required.”

The New Covenant centres on the work of Christ, who completed what was only foreshadowed in the Old Covenant. Hebrews 10:16 reaffirms Jeremiah’s prophecy, underscoring that under the New Covenant, God’s law is written on our hearts. This inner transformation, made possible through the indwelling Holy Spirit, fulfils what the law could not achieve.

Covenant as Relationship, Not Religion

The Old Covenant placed emphasis on following specific laws and rituals to maintain righteousness, while the New Covenant emphasizes a personal relationship with God through faith in Christ. Jesus encapsulated this idea in John 15:5, saying,

“I am the vine; you are the branches. If you remain in me and I in you, you will bear much fruit.”

The New Covenant calls us to abide in Christ, empowered by grace rather than driven by obligation.

Theologian Charles H. Spurgeon captures this relational aspect of the New Covenant, saying,

“The Law is a drawing up of the rules, but the Gospel is the filling of the heart with the love which delights to obey.”

This change from external observance to internal transformation marks a key distinction between the covenants. The New Covenant is not about earning favour, but living in response to God’s love, and this love empowers believers to follow His ways.

Covenant Promises and Power

In the New Covenant, God’s promises are “Yes” and “Amen” in Christ (2 Corinthians 1:20), meaning that all the blessings of God are made fully available to those who believe. This was not the case under the Old Covenant, which highlighted human insufficiency and the need for grace. Through the New Covenant, believers are not only forgiven but also enabled to partake in the “divine nature” (2 Peter 1:4) by the power of the Holy Spirit.

The New Covenant’s promise of transformation was missing in the Old, as scholar J.I. Packer notes:

“Under the New Covenant, God undertakes to effect the inward transformation of man which the Old Covenant demanded but did not provide.”

Through this covenant, believers have access to the Holy Spirit, who enables us to live in a way that aligns with God’s heart.

Conclusion: Living in the New Covenant

The major difference between the Old and New Covenants is not a rejection of the Old, but rather its fulfillment in Christ. The Old Covenant taught humanity about God’s holiness and human need, while the New Covenant empowers believers to live in the freedom of grace.

By understanding this progression, we can live in the light of God’s promises, activated not by our own efforts but by the completed work of Christ, and vitally, by abiding in Him through spiritual practice.

In the words of Paul,

“For the letter kills, but the Spirit gives life” (2 Corinthians 3:6).

The New Covenant is an invitation to a life transformed from within, a life that finds its strength not in rules, but in relationship, rooted in the grace of Jesus Christ through abiding spiritual practice. This is the promise and power of the New Covenant: a life of true communion with God, both now and eternally.